The research question was: Is there a significant difference in the final test scores of two groups of business administration students in which one group uses the independent study learning modality and the other uses directed classroom instruction? The research hypothesis was that there is a significant difference in the final test scores of students who use the independent study learning modality as compared to those who use directed classroom instruction (lecture-discussion). The null hypothesis was that there is no significant difference in the final test scores between students who used the independent study learning modality as compared to those who used directed classroom instruction (lecture-discussion).

    For this quasi-experimental inferential research, the population was defined as students in the business administration program. The sample consisted of two groups of business administration students who took the same advanced finance course. A control group was developed consisting of twenty-nine students who took the course through the lecture-discussion method. The experimental group consisted of twelve students who took the course by independent study. The two groups were administered the same final exam. Test results were calculated. The mean test score for the experimental group was 80.5. The mean test score for the control group was 86.6. A t-test for independent sample means was performed. Standard deviation for the experimental group was 18.7 and 14.2 for the control group. The t-test at the .05 level of significance revealed a calculated "t" of 1.04 with 3 1 degrees of freedom. The null hypothesis was accepted and the research hypothesis was not supported. The alternate hypothesis was not selected because no significant difference between the means was found.

    It is recommended that this study be discussed with the faculty of the business administration program who utilize both learning modalities and also that a series of workshops for the business administration faculty be organized to train them in the use of the independent study method and the lecture discussion method so they can be used more effectively. It is also recommended that the adult education faculty in general be trained to conduct research in the classroom. It is further recommended that for this purpose a research committee from the adult education program be formed.

    The Adult Education Program at the Inter American University (IAU) in Ponce, is a nontraditional program designed for the adult who works and because of his or her professional responsibilities, cannot attend school on a regular basis. The program is considered nontraditional because of its learning modalities. The nontraditional learning modalities include independent studies with tutoring, courses by contract, and the awarding of credit for prior learning experience. The students can also take their courses through directed classroom instruction (lecturediscussion).

     These learning modalities have been used since the beginnings of the Adult Education Program at IAU in 1985. In a recent self-study of the program for the Middle States Association (MSA), the accrediting agency for Puerto Rican colleges and universities, it was found that there is no evidence in the program of the effectiveness of the learning modalities in terms of student achievement. The Middle States Association has required evidence of the effectiveness of the nontraditional learning modalities as part of the assessment plan the MSA has asked the adult program to develop.

    One of the nontraditional learning modalities the adult students most frequently use is independent study. The other learning modality the majority of the adult students prefer is directed classroom instruction (lecture-discussion). The problem is that there is no study that compares the effectiveness of the independent learning modality in regard to student achievement. Scrudder (1981) and Knapper (1987) suggest the needs for more studies that compared the lecture- discussion method versus independent study methods in terms of student achievement. The director of the adult education program and the assessment committee of the adult education program decided that since these are the two modalities most frequently used by the students, a study to compare their effectiveness would yield most helpful data to the program. At the same time, this study would help the program meet the requirements of the Middle States Association.

    The purpose of this practicum was specific. The purpose of this practicum, was to compare the effectiveness of the independent learning modality versus the directed classroom instruction modality (lecture-discussion) as measured by final test scores of two groups of adult students from the business administration program. As used in this study, effectiveness refers to the efficiency of one teaching method compared to another in contributing to student achievement.
 

    The research question for this study was: Is there a significant difference in the final test scores of two groups of business administration students, one group using the independent study learning modality and the other using directed classroom instruction? In order to address this question an inferential research methodology was used.
 

    A research hypothesis for this study was formulated. The research hypothesis for this study was: There is a significant difference in the final test scores of students who use the independent study learning modality as compared to those who use directed classroom instruction (lecture-discussion)
 

    McKeachie (1986) points out that the lecture is probably the oldest teaching method most widely used in American colleges and universities. The lecture method goes back to the times of Aristotle and Socrates who used it, together with other techniques, to reach broad audiences, deliver key ideas and information, and to stimulate further interest in the area understudy. Miller(1991) suggests that for these same reasons the lecture method has survived and continues to play a vital role in instructional delivery.

    The lecture method can be used for different purposes. It can be used for teaching factual information. Kozma et al. (1978) indicate that in studies in which the lecture method was used, and in which three types of learning (factual information, higher-level cognitive learning, and attitude or motivation) were examined, the lecture method proved to be more effective for learning factual information. Lowman (1984) suggests that the lecture method is useful for emphasizing conceptual organization, clarifying ticklish issues, reiterating critical points, and inspiring students to appreciate the importance of key information.

    The lecture can also serve as an overview or orientation to prepare students for subsequent learning experiences by providing them with a framework. It can also integrate previous experiences such as readings, labs, and field work. These are two other uses of the lecture as suggested by Kozma et al. (1978).

Furthermore, the lecture can motivate students to learn more about a topic. Lowman (1984) states that:

They are above all, engaging. Any students mind wanders more often while reading assigned chapters or articles than when listening to an instructor who makes his or her knowledge about a subject seem exciting and important. Lectures can be very effective at creating an emotional set that aids students' learning indirectly by motivating them to apply energies fully. (p. 10 1)

    The lecture method has limitations that if not considered can make it a poor teaching method. One of them is that the lecture
 is essentially a unidirectional mode of communication. If used excessively, the lecture encourages intellectual passivity rather than learning.

    Another limitation of the lecture method is that it does not provide for the student's direct experience with the body of knowledge. Kozma et al. (1978) state that "not only is it difficult for the student to interact with the lecture, it is also difficult for the student to interact with the discipline" (p. 148). This limitation of the lecture makes it difficult for the student to develop problemsolving and creativity skills.

A final disadvantage of the lecture method is its poor effect on retention. McKeachie (1986) observes that experiments involving measures of retention of information at the end of a course favor other methods over the lecture method.
 

    The most notable characteristic of the independent study method, that distinguishes it from other methods, is that it is a selfdirected mode of learning. Kozma et al. (1978) state that "Independent study is a student's self-directed pursuit of academic competence in as autonomous a manner as he (or she) is able to exercise at any particular time" (p. 353). The independent study method is distinguished from other methods, such as the lecture method, by the growth of the students', skills and abilities to pursue learning on their own.

    The independent study method gives the student the opportunity to adapt goals, resources, and activities to their own needs. The student actively participates in what is to be learned as well as how it is to be learned. Mullen (1980) states that "There is convincing evidence that people who take the initiative in learning (proactive learners) learn more things., and learn better, than do people who sit at the feet of teachers passively waiting to be taught (reactive learners)" (p. 24).

    The independent study method makes the students responsible for their own learning. The method obliges students to inquire into a subject and often to integrate knowledge from different disciplines. They develop research skills by having to select, collect, and present information. The independent method develops in the students the skills of a self-directed learner.

    The independent study method used by a team of students can develop in them cooperative, decision-making, leadership, and problem-solving skills. The independent study method fosters the ultimate aim of formal education which is the development of intellectual competence. Independent study can help a student, working individually or in a team, become a problem-solver, a manager of his/her own time, and a learner who is learning how to learn.

    McKeachie (1986) observes that research on independent study shows that students taught by the independent study method did not always develop greater ability or motivation for learning independently. Research conducted by Hoffman (1973) on independent study showed that there were gains in self-acceptance, sociability, and intellectual efficiency among the participating students. Faculty and students who participated in the study indicated that the independent study students developed increased self-confidence, responsibility, tolerance, and independent thinking. Kulik (1983) made a careful analysis of courses taught conventionally versus those taught using independent study. In fifty-seven of sixty-one studies, final examination performance was superior in the independent sections compared to those taught using the lecture method.
 

    Few studies compare the independent study method versus the lecture method in terms of student achievement in business administration courses. Saenz (1988) compared three methodologies in the teaching of Marketing Education Coop I in the Houston Independent School District. The three methodologies compared were the independent study method, videotaped lecture method, and videotaped lecture with class discussion method.

   The random sample consisted of thirty-nine classes with twelve students in each class totaling four hundred sixty-eight
students. It was concluded that the videotaped lecture with class discussion ranked the highest after the first and second test. The videotaped lecture was ranked as the second best method after the first and second tests. The independent study method ranked third, or the poorest, after the first and second tests.

    In a study by McRae (1988), it was found that with respect to student performance on tests and levels of student satisfaction with introductory business courses there are no differences in terms of the teaching method used. The two teaching methods compared were the lecture method and the independent study method.

    Burowski (1976) compared the effectiveness of two methods of individualized instruction to the traditional textbooklecture method in teaching introductory accounting courses. The results of the study indicate the followin:
 

1. There was no significant difference in achievement gains for students experiencing individualized instruction and traditional instruction in the initial five units ofthe introductory accounting course.
2. There was no significant difference in attitudes toward accounting for students experiencing individualized instruction and traditional instruction in the initial five units in the introductory accounting course.
3. There was no significant difference in students'ability to transfer concepts learned to a problem-solving situation between students experiencing individualized instruction and students experiencing traditional instruction in the initial five units in the introductory accounting course.

    The lecture method can be an effective method of instruction due to its versatility. It is virtually limitless in application, either to situation, subject matter, or student age and learning ability. At the same time it can be one of the least effective methods if improperly used. The lecture method is more effective when visual aids, models, or some from of group participation are used

    The independent study method when properly used, that is, when the professor using it knows how to use it, can develop in the students higher learning skills. It can give the students increased capability for generalization and transfer, a sense of the relevance of learning, and the ability to analyze, synthesize, and apply what is learned. In terms of student achievement, the independent study method does not seem to be more effective than other methods, as for example, the lecture method.

    There is the need for more studies that compare the lecture method and the independent study method in terms of student achievement. The results of these studies would contribute to strengthening and improving these two methods, particularly the independent study method used in many colleges and universities.
 

    A review of relevant literature was conducted. Education journals, ERIC articles, and textbooks were consulted. The identifiers used were "university education", "conventional instruction", "independent study", "achievement", and "effectiveness."

    The planning of the experiment and the analysis of the data were carried out by the researcher. A professor from the Business Administration Department taught the advanced finance course to both groups in the experiment.

    For this quasi-experimental Inferential research study, the population was defined as students in the business administration program. The sample for this study were two intact groups of students from the business administration program who took the same advanced finance course. The experimental group consisted of all the students who took the course by Independent study. The control group consisted of all the students who took the course through the lecture-discussion method.

    The students in the experimental group received the study guide used in this course. The study guide begins with an introduction to the course. The introduction includes a course description, the course objectives, a course outline, the course's time distribution, the evaluation criteria, and a list of educational materials. It also provides a diagnostic test. There are twelve units in the study guide. Each unit consists of an introduction to the unit's topic, the course objectives, a procedure (learning activities), materials, and an evaluation. There is an answer key at the end of the guide for the diagnostic test and the evaluation exercises.

    The two groups were administered the same final exam, The final exam was developed, administered, and scored by the professor who taught the course. It was validated by the department head. The final exam means scores for each group were used to determine if there was a significant difference in the final test scores between the two groups. A two-tailed t-test for independent sample means at the .05 level of significance was calculated. Isaac and Michael (1990) indicate that the t-test Is an appropriate statistical technique to determine significant difference between means. They also note that the t-test is satisfactory for large samples and particularly appropriate for small samples. The null hypothesis for this study was: There is no significant difference in the final test scores between students who used the independent study method as compared to those who used the lecture/discussion method.
 

    There were three terms in this study that needed further clarity. One of them was "independent study", another was "directed classroom instruction", and the other was "academic achievement". Independent study, at the Inter American University in Ponce, refers to a nontraditional learning modality in which a student or a small group of students learn by themselves without having to attend classes to receive formal instruction. They meet with a professor assigned to the course once a week to clarify any doubt, present oral and written works, and take exams. The student is provided a study guide especially prepared for the course to assist him or her in accomplishing the course objectives (See Appendix A). Directed classroom instruction refers to the lecture discussion method in which a professor delivers instruction to a group of students on the assigned days and hours. In this study, academic achievement is defined as the final exam scores.
 

This study was limited in that the results applied only to the business administration program at the Inter American University, Ponce Campus. The results of this study are not generalizable to other departments in the Ponce Campus or to other campuses. Still another limitation of this study is that there were not many studies done in the past five years which compare these two methods, especially in the area of business administration.
 

    It was assumed that the sample is representative of the population. It was also assumed that the scores of the final exam were normally distributed. Further, it was assumed that the variance of the two groups was homogeneous.
 

    From the literature, the following data base searches were made: ERIC, Dissertation abstracts, and books in print. The identifiers utilized were "college (university) education", "conventional instruction", "independent study", "achievement", and "effectiveness." The Inter American University libraries were utilized. The searches done reveal that very few studies that compare these two methods were conducted in the past five years.

    The study sample consisted of forty-one students from the business administration program. The control group consisted of twenty-nine students. The experimental group consisted of twelve students. Both groups were administered the same final exam. Eight students from the control group did not take the final exam.

     Table I contains the raw test scores of all subjects from the experimental group and the control group. The test scores of the subjects from both groups were subjected to a two-tailed t-test for independent samples. A two-tailed t-test of independent means at the .05 level of significance was used.

Table 1. Raw Test Scores of Subjects
 

    Table 2 summarizes the results of the t-test between the experimental and control groups. The mean test score for the twelve subjects in the experimental group was 80.5 with a standard deviation of 18.7. The mean test score for the twenty-one subjects in the control group (eight students in this group did not take the final exam) was 86.6 with a standard deviation of 14.2. The degrees of freedom were 3 1. The calculated t-score is 1.04. A summary table is included as Table 2.

Table 2. Two-tailed t-test Comparison of Mean Differences
 

    According to standardized tables for a two-tailed t-test at the .05 level of significance, the critical value of t-score for 3 1 degrees of freedom is 2.04. The null hypothesis at the. 05 level of significance was accepted in this study because a t-score of 1.04 is less than the critical value of 2.04 for a two-tailed t-test.

    There was no significant difference between means of the experimental group and the control group. The research hypothesis that there is a significant difference in the final test scores of students taking the advanced finance course using the independent study method and the students taking the same course through the lecture discussion method was not supported. The alternate hypothesis was not selected since no significant difference between the means was found.
 

    The results of this study indicate that there was no significant difference between the independent study method and the lecture-discussion. The means of the two sample groups are not the same (Table 2). This finding parallels that of McRae (1988) and Bukowksi (1976) who found no significant difference between the independent study method and the lecture discussion method.

    The findings of this study indicate that in terms of student achievement,as measured by final exam scores,both methods are equally effective. The final test scores for both sample groups are really the same and any difference is due to sampling error. McKeachie (1986) states that "As with other comparisons of teaching methods few large differences were found between achievement of students working independently and those taught in conventional classes" (p. 244).

    This study indicates that the treatment (independent study) did not make any significant difference in final exam scores. The study results indicate that both methods are equal (Table 2). McKeachie (1986) observes that research on independent study shows that students taught by the independent study method did not always develop greater ability or motivation for learning independently.
 
 

    From the study results, it can be concluded that either of the two methods is equally effective for the teaching of an advanced finance course. The independent study method did not contribute to higher final exam scores than the lecture- discu ssion method.

    There is the need to reinforce the lecture discussion method so that students can benefit more from this method. Broadwell (1980) suggests combining the lecture discussion method with other techniques and devices to make it more productive in term of students' learning.

    There is an overall conclusion that can be inferred from this study. This conclusion is that the independent study learning modality is not more effective than the lecture-discussion method in terms of significant academic achievement as measured by final exam scores.
 

    This study has several implications for the adult education program at IAU, Ponce Campus. These are:

1. This study strengthens the adult education program by offering, statistical data of two of its learning modalities.
2. The adult education program can comply with one of the requirements of the Middle, Statts Association of Colleges and Universities for reaccreditation of the adult education program.
3. Faculty and students will have evidence of the value of the independent study method when properly used, and
4. This study will be part of the assessment plan of the adult education program and of the colleges' assessment plan.

    It is recommended that this study be discussed with the adult education faculty both part time and full time. The adult education faculty uses both learning modalities, and this study can help them understand better the use of these modalities. It is also recommended that the faculty be trained in conducting research in the classroom. It is further recommended that a research committee from the adult education program be formed. This committee would be in charge of conducting research in the adult education program and training the adult education faculty to conduct research. Still, another recommendation is to conduct workshops with the business administration faculty leading to a more effective use of the independent study method and the lecture- discussion method.

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